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Lesson 2, Topic 3
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Origins of feminist economics and important thought-leaders

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The origins of feminist economics date back to mid-19th century, and certain concerns about the situation of women can be found even in literature of 17th and 18th centuries. However, it gained importance during the 1990s when the term “feminist economics” was first used. 

The key material regarded as founding document of feminist economics was Marilyn Waring’s book “If Women Counted” (1988). This book brought a fundamental critique of how economic growth is measured. Waring pointed out that women’s unpaid work as well as value of nature have been omitted from variables considered to create the economic activity of nations (system of national accounts). Waring’s findings triggered redefinition of gross domestic product by the United Nations. 

A further important milestone was establishment of the International Association for Feminist Economics (IAFEE) in 1992, followed by the first volume of the journal Feminist Economics in 1995. 

There are many scholars or “thought-leaders” who contributed to development of feminist economics such as the Danish economist Ester Boserup, American economists Marianne Ferber, Barbra Bergmann, Heidi Hartmann or Julie A. Nelson or Indian development economist Bina Agarwal. A list of further names of feminist economists can be found here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_feminist_economists. Below, we mention in brief the key theories of four female economists who brought important contributions to development of feminist economics. For further reading, please visit the hyperlinks.

 

Ester Boserup

(1910-1999)

Ester studied connections between gender and economic development. She brought attention to the disproportionate division of work between men and women. Her work initiated discussion about better opportunities for women regarding work and education. She influenced the discourse related to gender and development practices with her work Woman’s Role in Economic Development published in 1970.

Marianne Feber

(1923-2013)

Marianne published several books that investigated the subjects of women and work, construction of gender and family. She pointed out that childcare and family responsibilities need to be readjusted not only in the family but also by the employers to support the increase of women entering the workforce. Her major publications include: Women and Work, Paid and Unpaid (1987) or Work and Families: Policies for a Changing Workforce (1991).

Barbara Bergmann

(1927-2015)

Barbara made important contributions to feminist economics. She argued that labour markets do not have a pervasive discrimination character. Besides, she also criticised the traditional economic paradigms which she regarded as being based on unrealistic assumptions. Her work covered many topics, among them gender issues, childcare, social security or poverty. 

Heidi Hartmann

(1945 – )

Heidi is the founder of Institute for Women’s Policy Research (IWPR) based in Washington. She specialises in research related to women, economics and public policy. Heidi calls for a fairer division of home care to improve work opportunities for women. She also pointed out that social security provides both advantages as well as disadvantages for women. Since women have less access to pensions and savings, in their elderly age they predominantly rely on social security which makes them more vulnerable.

Over time, feminist economics developed its own theoretical base (concepts, analytical frameworks, methodologies) as well as initiatives for its practical application which became a source for political decisions. It gradually evolved into a clearly opposing school of thought to neoclassical economics.

Feminist economics has been closely interlinked with political and social movements. Feminist economists have been advocating for women’s right to vote, equal access to labour market, financial independence, participation in unions, sexual and physical self-determination and recognition of unpaid work. The political demands (2) of feminist economists include the reduction of working hours and a basic income or more radical concepts such as the four-in-one perspective developed by Frigga Haug, which requires distribution of available time to four equal spheres: wage, reproductive labour, volunteering and leisure. Feminist economics is also closely interlinked with ecological movements which point out the intercorrelation between the ecological crisis and the crisis of social reproduction.

Feminist economics is not a single school of economic thought. It’s very diverse and includes many different perspectives. Over the years three main perspectives developed (3):

  • Liberal feminist economics

This perspective strives for equal access to the labour market which is seen as a tool to reach gender equality. It focuses on analysis of wage differentials, barriers of equal access to the labour market for women and effects of political and economic instruments on women.

  • Constructivist feminist economics

Constructivist feminist economics analyses the question of the attribution of gender identities. Such identities have an impact on economic decisions, structures and processes. If women perform jobs perceived as “female” work, this perspective asks if such a decision does or does not reproduce stereotypes and gender inequalities.

  • Critical feminist economics

This perspective analyses the interdependency of capitalism and gender inequalities. It started from a critique of the Marxist labour theory of value which omits the unpaid reproductive labour carried out by women.

2 –  Exploring Economis. Avalilable at: https://www.exploring-economics.org/en/orientation/feminist-economics/, 3 – dtto-

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